Wine

Wine.
Beverage made from fermented grape juice.
Origin.
Viticulture was known and wine was drunk in the prehistoric period of Mesopotamia and brought to Egypt before 3000 B.C. Greek tradition speaks of the god Dionysus, who fled Mesopotamia in disgust because its inhabitants drank mostly beer, though wine was still a popular drink. Wine may have been produced first by Noah (Gn 9:21) on the slopes of Mt Ararat, but it did not stay confined to that region since Egypt, and later Greece, had a fondness for the juice.
The word “wine” may be identified with words for vine, vineyard, black grapes, and so forth. The vine, which brings forth the wine, was often identified in the Near Eastern world with the “tree of life.” In both Egypt and Mesopotamia a goddess was thought to protect the vine. The “mistress of the heavenly tree of life,” the goddess Siris, lived in the mountains of northwestern Assyria. Enoch 32:4 calls the vine the tree of knowledge. According to Jewish tradition the vine was saved from the flood by Noah.
Production of Wine.
Few ancient documents are extant on the art of viticulture. Experience and the interests of a few early botanists appear to be the only source of knowledge available about the early winegrowers. Aristotle’s most famous student, Theophrastus of Eresos, wrote a book entitled Enquiry into Plants showing a blend of practical experience and theory. Later he followed with On the Life of Plants, a work giving detailed observation of viticulture. His ideas on when to plant, how to prune, statements against grafting, and how to care for the vine in general demonstrate the Greek genius. They raised viticulture to a science that has changed little in the last 2200 years.
Great care was taken by Greek winegrowers to ensure the success of their crops. The vines were close to the ground instead of being propped. In view of this, mice and foxes were especially undesirable, and much hoeing was needed to keep the soil free of weeds. But their method, overall, was very effective.
In early September the grapes were collected in the plains, and at the end of the month in the hills. With an initial festival of song and dance the workers brought the bunches of grapes to the winepress, low cement vats inclined toward one corner. After this, workers trod the grapes. The first must (juice from the crushing) was especially valued since it provided the choicest wines. The remaining juice was extracted by wringing the trodden grapes in a bag-press usually made of cloth. A third class of wine was produced by mixing or even cooking the remaining grapes with some water and expressing the mixture. This type of wine was drunk only by the poor.
At a later time the Greeks invented a beam-press, in which a long beam having a turning portion at one end and heavy stones on the other compressed layers of grapes. The ancient Near East had these different methods of extracting wine, but the treading of grapes, even in Greece, was always the favorite method.
In Greece the fermentation period was usually six months, during which the liquid was constantly skimmed. However, in the ancient Near East the fermentation process was usually over in three or four days, the optimum growth temperature being 77°. The ancients knew that any further fermentation would produce acid.
After desired fermentation the wine was transferred to skins or pottery jars for transport or sale. The handles and stoppers were stamped to indicate the brand, the origin, and the vintage. At this time the wine was strained through perforated metal sieves or cloth to eliminate contaminates such as grit or insects.
At first, parts of Greece enjoyed a monopoly on wine and exported great quantities. Egypt was especially fond of Greek wine, the ancient Near East being famous for “froth-blowers” or beer.
Kinds of Wine.
Ancient poets discuss many different brands of wine, with Athenaeus mentioning 85 different varieties. Galen cites 60, Pliny mentions 150, and Strabo 30. They are distinguished by different colors (black, red, white, or yellow), and by their taste (dry, harsh, light, or sweet). The biblical account enumerates various kinds of wine, such as the wines of Lebanon and Helbon. Hebron and Samaria were famous for viticulture. The Hebrew language has at least nine different words for wine, and the Greek has four that are mentioned in the NT.
Nature of Wine.
Few would question that at least some wine of the OT was fermented. Some scholars argue, however, that certain forms of wine in the ancient world were unfermented. They contrast two Hebrew words for wine, concluding that one particular Hebrew word which refers to fresh wine meant only grape juice (Prv 3:10; Hos 9:2; Jl 2:24; Mi 6:15). The inconclusiveness of these arguments may be seen from the following points: (1) The Hebrew word is found in primarily neutral contexts; (2) often that particular word is found in contexts definitely including a fermented beverage (e.g., Gn 27:28; Hos 4:11; Mi 6:15); (3) the Ugaritic parallel to the term in question refers with certainty to a fermented wine (4) the Septuagint equivalents refer to fermented wine; (5) fermentation in the ancient Near East, unlike Greece, took only about three days, and (6) the Mishna provides no such evidence of the practice of having unfermented wine. There seems to have been no attempts to preserve wine in an unfermented state; it may have been a near impossible task. A careful examination of all the Hebrew words (as well as their Semitic cognates) and the Greek words for wine demonstrates that the ancients knew little, if anything, about unfermented wine.
Ample evidence is available to demonstrate that wine, though always fermented, was usually mixed with water in the classical and Hellenistic world. The wine was stored in large jugs called amphorae, from which the wine was poured through a strainer into a large mixing bowl call a krater. In the krater the wine was mixed with water. Then the drinking bowls or cups were filled.
The amount of wine per volume varied. The mixture that represented the greatest amount of water to wine was 20 to 1, apparently because the wine was so strong (Homer, Odyssey 10. 208f).
In the western Mediterranean world the term “wine” referred to the mixture of wine and water. If one desired to mention wine without water, it was necessary to add the word “unmixed.” For the Greeks, to drink wine unmixed was regarded as barbaric. The evidence, however, seems to indicate that in the OT, wine was used without being mixed with water. The terminology of mixing water and wine is strikingly unattested. Wine diluted with water was symbolic of spiritual adulteration (Is 1:22). By Roman times this attitude changed. The Mishna assumes a ratio of two parts of water to one part wine; however, later Talmudic sources speak of three to one.
The strength of ancient wine is somewhat of a puzzle. A natural, nondistilled wine could reach as high as 15 percent alcohol content. If watered down 3 parts water to 1 part wine, the alcohol content would be 5 percent and still fairly potent. The difficulty arises in trying to understand how any naturally fermented wine could be so strong that as much as 20 parts of water were added to 1 part of wine. In addition Pliny speaks of fermenting wine having such a high alcohol content that it could burn. Laboratory experiments demonstrates that mixtures containing less than 30 percent alcohol will not burn instantly but will burn if a flame is applied persistently at room temperature, though a mixture at 20 percent alcohol is not flammable at room temperature. Thus the statement by Pliny suggests a very high alcohol content to some ancient wines. There is no proof of distillation in ancient records, though the evaporation of alcohol was understood.
Wine was mixed not only with water but also with other ingredients, similar to mixed drinks today. An example of this is seen in the Homeric “Hymn to Demeter,” where the goddess rejects straight wine and desires the drink mixed with meal, water, and a soft mint. Often strong wine was mixed into weak wine, resulting in a stronger drink. This is what is meant by “mixture” in the Bible (Ps 75:8; Is 5:22; Rv 18:6; 19:13–15). At times the fresh wine, high in sugar content, was evaporated, and this concentrated must was mixed with wine to obtain a higher alcohol content.
The strong drink of the OT seems to be closely related to Mesopotamian date wine. This same date wine, high in sugar content, must have also been high in alcohol content. One Hebrew word is consistently used as strong drink (Lv 10:9; Dt 29:6; 1 Sm 1:15; Prv 20:1; 31:6; Is 5:22; 29:9). There is an equivalent word to this in Ugaritic, translated “drunk,” which parallels the normal word for wine. Strong drink is usually condemned (Is 5:11, 22; 28:7; 56:12) and is especially forbidden to priests on duty (Lv 10:9). It is commended for the weak and weary (Prv 31:6; Nm 28:7).
Old Testament and Wine.
The evidence, as seen above, suggests that wine in the OT was not mixed with water and was looked on with favor when taken in moderation. Judges 9:13 presents wine as that “which cheers God and men.” Psalm 104:15 portrays wine similarly, “And wine which makes man’s heart glad” (cf. also Est 1:10; Eccl 10:19; Is 55:1, 2; Zec 10:7). The temperate use of wine was a normal and accepted part of life (Gn 14:18; Jgs 19:19; 1 Sm 16:20). Levitical priests in service at the temple (Lv 10:8, 9), Nazirites (Nm 6:3), and the Rechabites (Jer 35:1–3) were forbidden to drink wine.
Wine had many uses in the OT world. The “drink offering” was wine (Ex 29:40; Lv 23:13) and the worshiper regularly brought wine when offering sacrifice (1 Sm 1:24). In addition, a supply of wine was kept in the temple for sacrificial purposes (1 Chr 9:29). At times wine was used in helping the weak and sick (2 Sm 16:2; Prv 31:6). There is no mention of wine being administered to water to make it safe for drinking, as is commonly accepted. Modern examples of pollution were not common in the ancient world, although this problem appeared occasionally. Examples are myriad concerning the fresh wells, springs, and moving bodies of water in biblical times, and methods were available to purify any impure water.
Negative reactions to intemperate wine drinking abound in the OT. Isaiah condemned those who drank wine to excess (Is 28:1–8). Many admonitions of drinking wine in excess are given in the Scriptures (Prv 20:1; 21:17; 23:20, 21; 23:32–34).
The New Testament and Wine.
The intertestamental period serves as a backdrop for the NT period. Rabbinic sources reveal that wine was mixed with water (usually two parts of water to one of wine) in the Mishna, but later Talmudic material gives a three to one mixture. Prior to the NT era, wine was a normal part of the Passover ritual. The Mishna mentions drinking four cups of wine during the Passover meal, of which three were mixed with water.
Wine in the NT was a fermented beverage that was mixed with various amounts of water. It was also mixed with gall (Mt 27:34) and myrrh (Mk 15:23), and unmixed referred to God’s wrath (Rv 14:10). Evidence strongly suggests that the wine used at the Lord’s Supper was a mixture of water and wine, probably three to one in agreement with the dictates of the Mishna. The phrase “fruit of the vine” (Mt 26:27–29) is often interpreted to mean fresh grape juice. However, fresh grape juice would be all but impossible to find.
The NT, as the OT, argues forcefully against the unrestrained use of wine. The biblical admonition is not to be drunk with wine (Eph 5:18; 1 Pt 4:3). Leaders in the church were to practice moderation in the use of wine (1 Tm 3:3, 8; Ti 1:7). In 1 Timothy 3:3 and Titus 1:7, the KJV implies that no wine is to be taken, whereas in 1 Timothy 3:8 not much is to be taken. In reality all these verses should be translated in the sense “not to be addicted to wine.” Paul does urge believers to forego some things out of regard for an immature Christian’s conscience, which may be offended by a mature Christian eating meat and drinking wine that was once offered to idols (Rom 14:21).
Bibliography. H. Daniel-Rops, Daily Life in Palestine in the Time of Christ, pp 204–6; C. Seltman, Wine in the Ancient World.

Elwell, W. A., & Beitzel, B. J. (1988). Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible (2145–2148). Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Book House.